Nero 15

Chapter XV – Sacrifices

(Domus of Aulus Plautius, Rome, Dies Mercurii A.D. III Kal. Apr. DCCC A.V.C., in the 6th year of the reign of the Emperor Claudius [or Wednesday, March 28th, AD 47])

‘Longum iter est per praecepta, breve et efficax per exempla.’

(‘The way is made long through rules, but short and effective through examples.’)

- Seneca the Younger (‘Epistles’)

“Did you enjoy your bath, husband?” Pomponia Graecina asked of her spouse, now of a similar age to his friend, the Emperor, in the privacy of their bedroom, which had been rather lonely for the woman over the past four years whilst the man was subduing Britannia. She was performing the final adjustments to the resplendent fresh military uniform the renowned general had put on in readiness for that night’s banquet in his honour at the Imperial palace. “I did indeed, wife,” Aulus Plautius answered.

“Was the new slave efficient, as it was his first time performing such duties?” Pomponia Graecina further questioned. “You wouldn’t have thought so,” Aulus Plautius replied, “as he attended me perfectly, as if he was well versed in the tasks. He also has a nice gentle touch. Was it really necessary to have him completely castrated, as surely it wouldn’t have done any harm to leave him with his penis?”

“Alas, husband,” Pomponia Graecina responded, “I had no choice because he had already been altered like that when he was offered to me. Nevertheless, I agree with you, nullification of slaves is too extreme a penalty for them to suffer in order to enter inner household service, as the sacrifice of testes alone should be more than sufficient. However, as the dramatist Plautus said, in his ‘Aulularia’, ‘Done is done, it cannot be made undone’, although it is a pity!”

Pomponia Graecina did not appraise her husband of any further details relating to Nigerinus’ acquisition. This was because Aulus Plautius would not only be disinterested in the subject but also horrified to learn that his wife was being persuaded away from the traditional gods of Rome towards a new monotheistic sect from the east.

Pomponia Graecina had heard about Cephas and his teachings from an old slave woman, who had served her since childhood and who was therefore very intimate with her mistress. The intrigued patrician matriarch had therefore taken the unusual step of inviting the preacher to her home to hear at first hand what he had to say. She had not been converted instantly but had been sufficiently interested to arrange regular meetings to learn more about the Jesus of whom the man spoke.

Pomponia Graecina, brought up to believe utterly in the Roman pantheon, still remained doubtful about the philosophy this Jesus had propounded, but her scepticism was being gradually eroded by the persuasive Cephas. The man did not expect instant converts, especially amongst the rich and powerful, who were not only very conservative in their ways but also very wary of innovation and reform in case change unsettled the current order and their place in society. Instead, he was happy to preach patiently until his gentle arguments achieved success.

Despite not yet converting, Pomponia Graecina nevertheless began to subsidise Cephas’ humanistic activities and she was more than happy to buy the prostitute Nigerina out of his awful servitude at the preacher’s request. After all, there was a vacancy at the time for a eunuch in her inner household and not too much financial sacrifice from the family budget had to be made to secure the youth.

Cephas’ friend, a new Christian convert who had alerted the preacher to Nigerina’s plight and had later negotiated the purchase of the prostitute, had even managed to secure a price discount from the brothel owner. He had successfully argued that the youth’s worth as a prostitute would be diminishing in business volume and value as his novelty and freshness wore off.

Nigerina, whose feminine appellation was amended after purchase to the masculine Nigerinus, could not believe his luck at his change of fortune. He now found himself in a rich, proud but tolerant household, where the slaves were well looked after as long as they performed their work well. Idlers were not punished, just sold.

Nigerinus was so grateful to be living this relatively pleasant existence that he determined to serve his mistress well, achieving the highest possible proficiency in his tasks. He had not let his new owner down, absorbing his training well and quickly becoming one of her most capable and reliable servants. It was for this reason that Pomponia Graecina had awarded the youth the honour of attending to her returning victorious husband’s first bath at home for four years. She rightly believed that the handsome new slave would ensure that her spouse appreciated, and benefited from, the experience.

“There,” Pomponia Graecina announced, with clear admiration whilst making the final adjustment to her husband’s clothing, “you’re as ready as you’ll ever be to be received in honour at the palace.” She gave Aulus Plautius a brief affectionate peck on the cheek. However, her spouse was disappointed in the brevity of this kiss and encouraged a longer embrace.

Pomponia Graecina later found herself again patiently attending to the dressing of Aulus Plautius. However, neither husband nor wife regretted the chore, as it was symbolic of an overdue and much awaited re-indulgence of conjugal relations between the two, who truly loved each other. As a consequence, the general was going to be late for his banquet but he knew that his close friend from boyhood, the Emperor Claudius, would not mind, especially when he confided in him the reason for his lateness.

(Sanctuary of the Gallae of Cybele, Vatican, Rome, same time)

‘Quot homines, tot sententiae: suus quique mos.’

(‘How many men, so many thoughts: everyone has his customs.’)

- Terence (‘Phormio’)

The ‘Initium Caiani’ was taking place in the gallae sanctuary on the Vatican, when a bull sacrifice, or ‘taurobolium’, was due to re-consecrate ceremonially the chief gallae.

The Archigallus’ hair was combed back under a golden crown. His head was also adorned with a splendid floral chaplet and expensive fillet. His body was covered by a silken toga, with cincture girding in ornate Gabine style. Dressed so, he entered a deep, dark pit within the inner sanctum. Overhead, level with the floor, were wooden planks, pierced many times by a pointed tool to create many small holes.

The bull, a shaggy fierce animal displaying gold ornaments on its head and elsewhere, as well as flowery garlands on its flanks, was brought into the inner sanctum to stand on the wooden grilling. Senior gallae then pierced the animal’s stomach with a sacred spear to create a gaping wound that emitted a wave of hot blood, flowing onto and widely across the latticed structure underneath.

As a consequence, the Archigallus below experienced a sanguine shower, into which he deliberately placed his head. He threw back his face to catch the bloody rain, allowing the foul dew to bathe his visage before dripping onto his formerly splendid bodily garments.

Afterwards, the Archigallus emerged from the pit, showing himself off, drenched in blood from head to toe, to the other priests, who uttered loud, long incantations at the vision. As the chief gallae then departed to wash and redress, having been consecrated in his sacred post for another year, sanctuary slaves dragged the dead bull away to the kitchens. The animal’s meat was to form one of the principal courses at the resplendent banquet that would end the ‘Initium Caiani.’

Meanwhile, Axenius watched entranced from nearby. He was in the company of Palaemon, for the pair had been specially invited by the Archigallus to watch the normally private ritual and attend the later feast. As it turned out, the young slave ate heartily but his master had, for some reason, lost his normally healthy appetite.

(Circus Maximus, Rome, Dies Martis Prid. Non. Apr. DCCC A.V.C., in the 6th year of the reign of the Emperor Claudius [or Tuesday, April 4th, AD 47])

‘Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque.’

(‘On ancient ways and heroes stands the Roman state.’)

- Ennius

It was the start of the great week-long festival of the Megalensia, representing the anniversary of the reception of Cybele’s image at Ostia over 250 years earlier, mandated by oracle to save Rome in the war against Carthage. An ‘ambarvalia’, or procession to the musical accompaniment of cymbals, flutes and drums is first held. The deity’s image, carried in a beautiful cart, imparts blessings to the houses and fields along the way. Great games, chariot races, theatre plays, banquets and sacrifices are held, and many social calls made, during the ensuing seven days. Celebrants regularly share a ‘moretum’, a mixture of feta cheese, garlic, celery seed, rue, coriander, oil and vinegar, the delicacy honouring the Mother Goddess’ gifts of herbs and simple foods that nourish children in the early days of human existence.

A dazzling statue of Cybele graces the spina of the Circus Maximus, where the chariot races are held. As I had so much enjoyed my first experience of these thrilling spectacles, Gaius had again brought me to watch, this time with Apollinus as well as Hylas. Axenius was also in our company, along with Palaemon. The latter pair told the rest of us about their experience at the taurobolium, with the beautiful young Germanian having difficulty in restraining giggling at recall of his master’s white-faced reaction to proceedings.

The grinning Palaemon not only did not seem to mind Axenius’ amusement but also appeared to relish the fun his young slave was enjoying at his expense. In fact, the young Germanian’s enthusiastic and highly humorous telling of his tale proved quickly infectious because soon all his companions, including his master, had been engulfed by uncontrollable laughter. This was only ended by the loud trumpet fanfare that heralded the arrival of the chariots for the first race.

The Megalensia closes after a week on the 10th day of Aprilis, which is considered in Rome to be Cybele’s birthday, as it is the anniversary of the consecration of her temple on the Palatine, at this time 238 years previously. Of course, there are various other celebrations involving other deities and events that take place regularly, sometimes concurrently or consecutively. For example, on the next morning begins the annual ten-day festival of Ceres, the goddess who protects the spring sowing and later growing of crops.

Farmers particularly revere Ceres and, at this crucial time of spring sowing, many garland their oxen and, at the feast of the ‘Semetivae’, sacrifice cakes, spelt, a kind of wheat, and pigs to her and her fellow goddess, Tellus, the earth. In Rome, the deity is adored by the common people, mainly as a result of her association with the ‘annona’, or free distribution of grain, and the consequent belief that she protects the urban interests of the poor, including their representatives, such as the Tribunes. A lot of social visiting and other activities amongst the lower orders therefore take place in her honour. More games, the ‘Ludi Ceriales’, are also organised, this time by the plebeian Aediles

The similar four-day Floralia to Flora follows. Flora is protector of everything that blooms, not only flowers but also fruit trees, vines, vegetables and wheat. Respect for her festival is considered very important if you do not want fields and gardens to be laid waste by heavy rain and hail and strong winds. If, for some reason, you were initially unaware that the goddess’ festivities were taking place, you would soon find about by being regularly bombarded by dried peas and beans, a ritual custom especially favoured by children.

I could, of course, go on and on about the many festival events that happen almost daily in the capital of the great Empire but I am aware of the need not to bore the reader too much, especially as I must already be testing your patience. I shall therefore move on to the next celebrations that played a significant role in my personal life. These were the ‘Ludi Saeculares’, or ‘Secular Games’, customarily held only every century, or ‘saeculum’. They were to take place in the Campus Martius from the end of Maius, when the Emperor Claudius would celebrate Rome’s 800th birthday by hosting a variety of events over three days. However, my saga will first make a short detour to the plebeian and patrician quarters of Rome.

(Plebeian quarter, Rome, same time)

‘Non ignara mali, miseris succurrere disco.’

(‘Not ignorant to evil, I learn to help the unfortunate.’)

- Virgil

The street urchin tried to invest his aureus wisely. The filthy boy, dressed in dirty disheveled rags, knew that most people with whom he tried to trade the coin would simply steal it from him, in the safe knowledge that he could do little to prevent the theft. There was no-one who would be prepared to listen to, let alone act upon, a complaint from such a ragamuffin and he was too weak and diminutive and, to be honest, bashfully reserved, to defend his own interests. He therefore wisely decided to live off the much smaller denominations he had been given by kind citizens, for some did exist, whilst searching for a person he could trust. His eventual choice was inspired.

One of the ways the boy had managed to survive on the streets for so long was the existence of soup kitchens for the poor and needy. One simple look by anyone at the grimy malnourished waif would certainly judge him as qualified to receive such charity. However, there were many like him and often he would wait in lengthy queues for a long time, frequently losing his place to stronger guttersnipes, only to discover, once he finally reached the head of the line, that all the food had gone.

The beggar boy was therefore glad that a number of new soup kitchens had been established by a new religious cult. He cared little for such beliefs because, from his perspective, he believed that there could be no gods. If such deities did exist, he had pondered, why did they let young innocents like himself suffer so much in a harsh cruel world?

The young urchin particularly liked one of the new kitchens because a kindly bearded man would often watch over the queue to make sure that no-one lost their place to bullies. The supervisor apparently did not believe in applying the philosophical doctrine of the survival of the fittest to the streets of Rome, although, of course, the young ragamuffin would not have heard of such a principle.

The boy had learnt that the man usually held meetings, in a first floor room above the kitchen, to discuss his cult after the facility closed. After having filled his belly for once, the young waif fatefully decided to go to hear some of what was being said before resuming his begging at his usual patch on the Vatican. He listened longer than he intended for he stayed until the end. However, it has to be confessed that this turn of events was not caused by infatuation with what was being said, interesting though that was, especially the reference to a man sacrificing himself for all mankind. The urchin had instead decided that the preacher was the right person to ask to change his aureus into more manageable denominations.

Accordingly, at the end of the meeting, the boy sought out the man, who was at first busy talking to others. However, it was not in the preacher’s nature to ignore anyone, not even, or perhaps I should say especially, a street beggar. “What can I do for you?” Cephas asked gently, with a pleasant smile, when it finally became the young ragamuffin’s turn to speak to him.

Cephas acquiesced to the boy’s request for a chat in greater privacy, guiding the young urchin to a quiet corner of the large room they were in. The bare-footed waif then fiddled about with the dirty rags that were his only cover before finding his carefully concealed aureus and presenting the coin in his grimy palm for the man to inspect.

Cephas was amazed to see a golden replica of Emperor Claudius’ profile glinting back at his eyes and he could not help but ask, with obvious suspicion, “Where did you get that?” “Please, sir,” the boy answered, realising from the man’s earnest tone that he might suspect him of thieving the coin, “I didn’t steal it but was given it, honestly!”

Cephas averted his gaze from the very valuable coin to the boy’s own eyes, now slightly damp with worry that he might not be believed. The preacher was a good judge of character and knew instantly that the ragamuffin was being truthful. He therefore immediately sought to place the young beggar at ease by saying “I know. Now, tell me why are you showing me this small fortune?”

A little later, Cephas asked other more probing questions, relating to the boy’s name and background. The young urchin was usually very secretive with such information if anyone bothered to ask, which was extremely rarely. However, on this occasion, he had become disarmed by the man’s charm and flattered by the interest of such a person and so confessed all.

(Domus of Aulus Plautius, Rome, later)

‘Magnas inter opes inops.’

(‘A pauper in the midst of wealth.’)

- Horace (‘Carmina’)

“Mistress,” Nigerinus advised Pomponia Graecina, “Cephas has arrived. Should I show him in?” “Yes, please,” the woman replied. However, before departing to fulfil this task, the black slave added “I should perhaps warn you, mistress, that your guest is accompanied.”

The boy had rarely ventured beyond the confines of Rome’s plebeian quarters or his begging patch on the Vatican. Certainly, he had never possessed the temerity to walk into the part of the great capital where the resplendent houses, many surrounded by large gardens, of the affluent were located. There was too much danger of being intercepted by members of the garrison of Rome, ever protective of the rich and their possessions. However, on this occasion, the filthy urchin felt safe, for he was in Cephas’ company. The man had told him that he personally could not change the aureus but he knew someone who was wealthy enough to be able to do so.

The young beggar was amazed at the sight of the resplendent residences he and Cephas passed, to his young mind seemingly representative of a totally different plain of existence to the one he inhabited. The waif was even more astonished to discover that one of these domi was their destination.

“What on Earth have you brought me now?” Pomponia Graecina asked without malice at observing Nigerinus escort the dirty young ragamuffin into her opulent main reception room, or ‘tablinum’, in Cephas’ company. The man smiled, glanced briefly at the happy black youth now returned obediently to his mistress’ side and responded “I have another favour to request!” Shortly afterwards, the new slave of the inner household led the filthy urchin to the huge domus’ luxurious private bathhouse, with friendly instructions to turn the young creature into a recognisable boy.

Meanwhile, Cephas was apologising to Pomponia Graecina. “I’m sorry to ask for your involvement in another project,” the man announced, “so soon after the satisfactory conclusion of the first. However, my Lord always insisted that we were to help those worse off than ourselves whenever we could and I saw the opportunity to give this poor mite, who is actually a free-born Roman, a better life.” “Don’t worry,” the woman replied, “I’m happy to help. I might not yet be fully converted to your beliefs but I certainly believe in some of your Lord’s teachings. I might not be able to save humanity, as he intended to do, but I can do my best for the occasional human!”

Having carefully examined his task, Nigerinus decided that drastic action was required. There would be no preliminaries or use of oil and strigil. Instead, it would be straight to the ‘caldarium’, or ‘hot room’, for scrubbing in the hot bath.

When Nigerinus and the boy reached the facility, they found the room already cleaned and readied for further use after Aulus Plautius’ earlier bathing before departing to be in the Emperor’s company in the Circus Maximus for the Megalensia chariot racing. “Please, young master, remove your….”, the black slave was unthinkingly about to say ‘rags’ in his heavily accented Latin before realisation about the imminent discourtesy intervened and he altered the word to “….clothing.” However, there was no initial reaction from the clearly very shy young recipient of this request.

Nigerinus persisted. “Please, young master,” he begged, “remove your clothing and jump into the bath so that I may wash you. The water’s lovely and warm!” However, the boy not only still hesitated but also firmly gripped the dirty torn hems of what purported to be a tunic in a defiant show of extreme reluctance to comply.

Nigerinus therefore changed tack and declared “Right, if it makes you happier, I’ll go first.” He then quickly sacrificed his leather sandals, followed by his own rich clean tunic and finally his loincloth undergarment. However, this did not at first have the desired result for the boy recoiled in clear horror, shrieking “You’re a girl!”

Nigerinus did not flinch an eyelid. He simply gently retorted “No I’m not. They’ve just been cut off!” The boy was temporarily speechless, instead standing staring at the uncovered scene of genital devastation. However, he eventually managed to splutter a one-word question. “Why?” he enquired, in obvious awe.

Nigerinus saw his opportunity. “Please remove your own clothing, young master” the nullified eunuch gently requested, “and jump into the bath and I’ll tell you all you want to know while I wash you.” Shortly afterwards a loud splash could be heard, as a naked but filthy young body finally obeyed the instruction.

A couple of hours later, Cephas and Pomponia Graecina were still conversing about the beggar boy when Nigerinus and his charge returned. “By the gods….” the female patrician jokingly exclaimed, before apologising to her adult guest for what would appear to him to be a pagan profanity and then continuing “who’s this handsome young man?”

The boy, immaculately cleaned and groomed, with straight brown hair neatly combed and trimmed in the Roman bowl style, all nails manicured and attired in an expensive spare tunic, blushed. “Thank you, Nigerinus,” Pomponia Graecina then announced, “you’ve done a splendid job. Now, please fetch us all, including yourself, some refreshment whilst we debate what our young guest should do with his gold aureus.”

Some time later, a smiling Cephas left Aulus Plautius’ domus with Nigerinus. The 17 year-old eunuch was delighted once more to be in the company of his saviour from hell and the pair chatted without pause until they had to part, still in the patrician quarter, at the magnificent house of an equestrian, renowned as one of Rome’s best bankers. The financier would not normally open an account for someone who only had one gold aureus to invest but, as the request, conveyed by the black slave, came from the wife of one of his most important clients, he was happy to comply.

Meanwhile, the former street urchin, now revealed to be actually a very pretty 10 year-old boy, was beginning a new life in the home of Aulus Plautius, who did not yet know that he had a new adopted son.

(Circus Flaminius, Campus Martius, Rome, Dies Mercurii Prid. Kal. Iun. DCCC A.V.C., in the 6th year of the reign of the Emperor Claudius [or Wednesday, May 31st, AD 47])

Phoebe silvarumque potens Diana,

lucidum caeli decus, o colendi

semper et cultu, date quae precamur

tempore sacro,

quo Sibyllini monuere versus

virgines lectas puerosque castos

dis, quibus septem placuere colles,

dicere carmen.

alme Sol, curu nitido diem qui

promis et celas aliusque et idem

nasceris, possis nihil urbe Roma

visere maius.

rite maturos aperire partus

lenis, Ilithyia, tuere matres,

sive tu Lucina probas vocari

seu Genitalis:

diva, producas subolem patrumque

prosperes decreta super iugandis

feminis prolisque novae feraci

lege marita,

certus undenos deciens per annos

orbis ut cantus referatque ludos

ter die claro totiensque grata

nocte frequentis.

vosque, veraces cecinisse Parcae,

quod semel dictum est stabilisque rerum

terminus servet, bona iam peractis

iungite fata.

fertilis frugum pecorisque tellus

spicea donet Cererem corona;

nutriant fetus et aquae salubres

et Iovis aurae.

condito mitis placidusque telo

supplices audi pueros, Apollo;

siderum regina bicornis, audi,

Luna, puellas.

Roma si vestrum est opus Iliaeque

litus Etruscum tenuere turmae,

iussa pars mutare Lares et urbem

sospite cursu,

cui per ardentem sine fraude Troiam

castus Aeneas patriae superstes

liberum munivit iter, daturus

plura relictis:

di, probos mores docili iuventae,

di, senectuti placidae quietem,

Romulae genti date remque prolemque

et decus omne.

quaeque vos bubus veneratur albis

clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis

inpetret, bellante prior, iacentem

lenis in hostem.

iam mari terraque manus potentis

Medus Albanasque timet securis,

iam Scythae responsa petunt, superbi

nuper, et Indi.

iam Fides et Pax et Honor Pudorque

priscus et neglecta redire Virtus

audet adparetque beata pleno

Copia cornu.

augur et fulgente decorus arcu

Phoebus acceptusque novem Camenis,

qui salutari levat arte fessos

corporis artus,

si Palatinas videt aequos aras

remque Romanam Latiumque felix

alterum in lustrum meliusque semper

prorogat aevom,

quaeque Aventinum tenet Algidumque,

quindecim Diana preces virorum

curat et votis puerorum amicas

adplicat auris:

haec Iovem sentire deosque cunctos

spem bonam certamque domum reporto

doctus et Phoebi chorus et Dianae

dicere laudes.’

(‘O Phoebus, and Diana ruler of the woodlands,

Radiant glory of the sky, O ye who are to be worshiped

Always, and venerated, grant what we pray for

In this sacred season

In which the Sibylline verses admonished

Chosen girls and spotless boys

For the gods who favor the seven hills

To sing a song.

Fostering Sun, thou who in shining chariot the day

Dost reveal and conceal and art as another

Yet the same reborn, may you than the city of Rome be able

To behold nothing greater!

Gentle to bring to light issue

In due season, O Ilithyia (Goddess of Birthing), protect mothers,

Whether thou dost delight to be called Lucina (Radiant Goddess)

Or Genitalis (Birth Goddess).

Goddess, may you bring forth offspring, and make our fathers'

Decrees prosper on the joining

Of women, and with new progeny fruitful

The law on marriage.

That each ten times eleven years the fixed

Circuit return the songs and games

For three bright days and as many pleasant

Nights in throngs.

And ye, O Fates, truthful in having sung

What was once ordained (and may the firmly fixed

Boundary keep it so), do ye now to deeds past

Join fair fortune.

Fertile in fruit and flocks, the earth,

May she endow Ceres with crown of grain;

May both healthful waters nourish the harvests,

And Jove's breezes.

Mild and peaceful, thy spear laid aside,

Heed the suppliant boys, O Apollo;

Horned queen of the stars, heed,

O Moon, the girls.

If Rome is your handiwork, and Trojan

Throngs held the Tuscan shore,

A remnant bidden to move their household gods and city

In a passage to safety,

For which, without harm through burning Troy,

Unsullied Aeneas, surviving his fatherland,

Did secure a free path, bound to give

More than what was left behind,

Ye gods, honest ways to teachable young,

Ye gods, to serene old age quiet rest,

To Romulus' people grant substance and issue

And every glory.

And what with white bulls the famous

Blood of Anchises and Venus of you doth entreat,

May he obtain, master o'er the warrior, yet

Gentle to the prostrate foe.

Already on sea and land his mighty armies

The Mede doth fear, and his Alban axes,

Already the Scythians seek his response, proud

Only recently, and the Indians.

Already Loyalty and Peace and Honor and Ancient

Modesty and neglected Virtue to return

Doth venture, and blessed Plenty appear

With full horn.

Augur, and splendid in gleaming bow,

Phoebus, beloved of the nine Muses,

Who with healing art doth uplift

The body's weary limbs,

If favorably he doth behold Palatine altars,

Roman wealth and Latium kindly

Into another cycle prolong and

Into a better age,

And she who guards the Aventine and Mount Algidus,

Diana, the prayers of the Fifteen Men

Doth heed and to the vows of children doth

Lend kindly ears,

That these prayers Jove and all the gods must hear,

Homeward I do bear good and certain hope,

I, the chorus, taught both of Phoebus and Diana

The praises to tell.’)

- Horace (‘Carmen Saeculare’, a choral hymn in the sapphic metre, written by Horace in 17 BC, at the command of the emperor Augustus, for performance at the Ludi Saeculares of that year by a choir of 27 boys and 27 girls.)

I was looking forward to the first day of the 3-day ‘Ludi Saeculares’, or ‘Secular Games, in the Circus Flaminius, the second largest and oldest of Rome’s hippodromes after the Circus Maximus. As well as being in the delightful company of Gaius and Hylas, the day’s main programme comprised chariot racing.

The Circus Flaminus is rectangular in shape, about 300 paces long and 120 wide, opening on the outside through a succession of travertine arches with pilasters topped with Doric half columns. It also holds other events besides games. For example, it is the place where the plebeians meet for their ‘concilia plebis’ and the start of triumphal processions.

The Circus Flaminus is located on the Campus Martius, for centuries Rome’s playground, situated on the flat ground between the Tiber and Capitoline and Quirinal Hills. It is the traditional site for the ‘Ludi Saeculares’, hence the use of this hippodrome rather than the much larger Circus Maximus for this particular event.

The northwest part of the Campus Martius, bounded by river on two sides, was previously an old military parade ground. In republican times, young men were said to prefer athletic games on the huge field during the cooler hours of the day, followed by plunges in the river, to using the city baths. Old men, on the other hand, preferred to walk there after a siesta and before going to bathe and dine. However, the Emperor Augustus and his cronies, such as T. Statilius Taurus, who was responsible for the amphitheatre I would visit the next day, began much building work on the site, which has been continued by Imperial successors.

The opening of the Ludi Saeculares was marked by the arrival of the Emperor, to much cheering from the large crowds. The Princeps was accompanied by a large entourage of court favourites, including the recently honoured Aulus Plautius. The general had himself brought his two young sons, one, conceived just before the great soldier’s departure for Britannia, aged only 4 and the other, very recently adopted, 10. Despite the age differential, both newly introduced boys thoroughly enjoyed each other’s company.

Many caged birds were then set free and lottery tickets thrown to the eagerly anticipative spectators, causing some fights in the scramble to secure the small brass tokens. However, Hylas and I followed Gaius’ example by disdaining the largesse and thereby forgoing the opportunity to win one of the very generous prizes.

We enjoyed the 54-strong choir of pretty children that sweetly repeated Quintus Horatius Flaccus’ hymn, composed for the similar games Augustus had incongruously held 64 years earlier for rather obscure celebratory reasons. We equally welcomed the following reenactment by important young boys on horseback of a scene from the Trojan War. I was particularly pleased to see the Emperor’s son, Britannicus, whose 6th birthday had been on the 11th day of Februarius, receive much loud support from the watching masses. However, I was less pleased to notice 9 year-old Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus obtain a like welcome.

The highlight of the subsequent exciting chariot contests was when one charioteer of the Whites, named Corax, was thrown out of his vehicle at the start of a race. However, his team of horses quickly gained the front and hung on to the lead by crowding their opponents and perpetrating all sorts of obstructive tactics against their rivals, all within the rules and as if they were being driven. Then, seemingly ashamed that human skill was being surpassed by unguided animals, they suddenly sacrificed victory by stopping just short of the chalk finish-line.

The horses received a far greater cheer than the declared victors. Thereafter, I myself was always an ardent fan of the Whites. However, unusually for me, I was not looking forward to the games’ second day, despite the fact that I would again be with Gaius and Hylas.

(Amphitheatre of T. Statilius Taurus, Campus Martius, Rome, Dies Mercurii Kal. Iun. DCCC A.V.C., in the 6th year of the reign of the Emperor Claudius [or Thursday, June 1st, AD 47])

‘Faber est suae quisque fortunae.’

(‘Every man is the artisan of his own fortune.’)

- Appius Claudius Caecus

Even though my natural curiosity had induced me to watch the sanguine spectacle in the temple of Cybele when the gallae initiates had castrated themselves, I had a strong distaste for blood. This cowardly attitude was probably enhanced by the deaths of my father and older brother at the hands of Roman legionaries and my own subsequent gelding.

I knew that, in the vast surrounds of the 75 year-old stone amphitheatre of T. Statilius Taurus on the Campus Martius, thousands of noisy citizenry would be full of bloodlust whilst they watched the second day of the Ludi Saeculares. I also appreciated that my appalled eyes would watch some of the most awful scenes in my life. However, Gaius insisted that I went, stayed and did not look away.

“This will now reveal my fellow Romans as they truly are,” Gaius eventually declared as, to raucous screaming from the vast crowds, many poor creatures began to be slaughtered by the bestiarii during the first proper session of the games, the animal fights, or ‘venationes’. Lifts hoisted the human and bestial entertainers into the arena from beneath, where there was a large complex of passages, rooms and stables to house the performers, although the amphitheatre was by no means as big as the great Coliseum. However, construction of the latter had not yet even been considered.

Despite the ferociousness of some of the beasts, which included very expensive lions, panthers, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, bears and bulls, none were really any match for the expert bestiarii, who were well armoured and armed. The men possessed bows and arrows, spears, swords and knives, and the whole appalling spectacle, which lasted several hours until noon, was nothing more than a sacrificial massacre of magnificent and valuable wild life.

When the bestiarii, or more succinctly the spectators, had tired of humans fighting animals, I watched a hungry panther pitted against a bull and other sanguine creature combat combinations until my nausea finally produced the inevitable result. Luckily, I reached the latrines before my stomach emptied itself. However, Gaius now dismissed my plea to leave the stadium to go somewhere more appealing to my sensitivities, stating “You must stay, not only to observe what befalls on the stadium floor but also the crowd. Hear their shouts and see their reactions, for these are Romans from all classes displaying an innate taste for cruelty, violence and death. I promise that remaining will be worthwhile, for the knowledge you gain from this terrible day will help guide you in future!”

I knew at the time that Gaius was only trying to further my education for my future benefit. However, my delicate innards wished that he had chosen another method of teaching me about gladiatorial games without having to witness the horrible spectacle at first hand.

Gaius explained to me that gladiatorial games had originally only been held as a funeral rite for someone either of great importance or wealth. However, Julius Caesar had cunningly realised the enormous popularity that would be brought to him, especially amongst the plebeians, if he held the free events more often than such custom allowed.

Julius Caesar had therefore altered protocol to permit contests to celebrate anniversaries, something continued by his Imperial successors to keep the masses happy. However, the Emperors had been forced to spend ever more and be increasingly imaginative in what spectacle was provided in order to satisfy the continually expanding expectations of the populace.

Just after noon, after many animal carcasses had been dragged off the sanguine ground and copious bloodstains covered in loose sand, the word ‘arena’ appropriately meaning ‘sand’ in Latin, the next death cries from the amphitheatre floor came from human beings. The first of the day’s criminals was being introduced to a famished lion. He was a naked young man, bound helplessly to a post fitted with wheels for easy transport in and out of the arena. Despite their keen hunger, the animals had to be encouraged to attack the nude victim by a piece of fresh meat strung around his neck.

Other ravenous beasts similarly savaged more criminals before a pair of naked men was invited to fight each other with swords in order to avoid the same fate. Despite their obvious lack of expertise at the practice, which induced much loud hilarity amongst the watching hordes, they managed to wound each other mortally. Their throats were then cut and their bodies dragged off through the ‘the Gate of Goddess of Death’ by representatives of the relevant Etruscan deity, Phersu, who would conduct the same duties later for slain, or wounded and condemned, gladiators.

My main personal concern actually related to observing the gladiators, for I had come to learn that many of the current fighters had been selected from the latest batches of prisoners of war. I therefore knew that I would soon be watching many of my fellow countrymen being slaughtered, not in the cause of patriotic defence against invaders but purely for the entertainment of the almighty Roman populace.

My fellow Britannians, selected for their proven strength, courage and combat ability, had been well trained and prepared for their appearance at the games. Their instructors at their gladiatorial schools had been supplemented by doctors, masseurs, armourers, bandage experts and tailors to ready them to fight and not infrequently die.

Despite my intense distaste, if not distress, at previous and now imminent proceedings, I have to confess to experiencing an incongruous thrill at the eventual processional arrival of the gladiators, heralded by a loud blast of trumpets. This thrill was further enhanced when I saw the men raise their different weaponry to salute the Emperor with the words “‘Morituri te salutant”, or “Those who go to their death, greet you!”

My compatriots were obvious by the unmistakable national swords and shields they carried, their unique helmets and, especially, their blue body painting. I knew that many would not normally have borne such bodily decoration and assumed that their supervisors had insisted upon it to meet the expectations of the Roman crowd who, judging from many loud insulting shouts, were particularly keen to see such gaudily presented barbarians offering combat.

I cannot say that I initially noticed, amongst the gladiatorial assemblage, the relatively diminutive 20 year-old Italian retiarius who was about to make his debut performance. He was certainly not particularly prominent during the initial mock combats. However, when the real fighting began, after another triumphal fanfare, he certainly came to the fore.

Like other retiarii, the young gladiator had foregone heavy armour in favour of mobility. Armed only with his net and trident, he launched into combat against his opponent from Britannia, to deafening cries from around of ‘Hit! Strike! Kill!”, with reckless but nevertheless fearsome resolve and no little skill.

The fight supervisors, equipped with nasty whips, staves and red-hot irons in order to prompt any reluctant gladiators into action, had no need to use such encouragement as far as the young retiarius was concerned. He quickly despatched his larger, seemingly more powerful opponent to Hades by efficiently ensnaring and tripping the Britannian in his net before ramming his trident into the now prone warrior’s throat.

Blood erupted like a fountain from the three awful fatal wounds created but, fortunately, the defeated gladiator’s death agonies were quickly over and he soon lay still. The bloodthirsty massive crowds then roared in triumphal salutation at a rapid victory of one of their own against a barbarian. For this particular conflict, the Emperor would not have to seek the advice of the thousands of spectators as to whether the vanquished should live or die. Contrary the belief of some foreigners I subsequently came across in some places, for such consultation, thumbs up meant death not life.

At the time and like most, I did not know who the debutante restiarius was but, after many more victories on later occasions, his name became renowned in Rome. The triumphant young gladiator’s sweat, often bloody, would be scraped off his body after each fight to be mixed with olive oil and sold for great sums as an aphrodisiac to rich women.

Unfortunately, the restiarius had frustratingly to disappoint the many other females who wanted his famous body itself for different purposes, as Didius was gallingly missing the equipment with which to pleasure them.

I was less admiring of Didius’ arena handiwork, as he killed many of my compatriots, as well as many from other countries. However, our paths were later to cross and I would have the opportunity to avenge the souls of my national brethren.

Although ‘Ludi Saeculares’ are technically, by their very title, supposed to be celebrated once every century, Augustus’ games of 64 years earlier had distorted the timetable. This was to be disturbed further by a similar event I was to experience in my lifetime, precisely forty years later. However, that was far into the future.

Meanwhile, the next six months were to pass quickly and another defining year of my life rapidly approached, one that would have major ramifications not only for my own circumstances and those of some people I knew well but also for the Roman Empire itself.

(To be continued in chapter XVI – ‘Conspiracies’)